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Properties

Strength of Materials








The following are basic definitions and equations  used to calculate the strength of materials.

Stress normal

Stress is the ratio of applied load to the cross-sectional area of an element in  tension and is expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or kg/mm2.

  Load   L
Stress, sigma =   =  
 Area  A

Strain (normal)

A measure of the deformation of the material that is dimensionless.

  change in length   DeltaL
Strain,  epsilon =   =  
 original length  L




Modulus of elasticity

Metal deformation is proportional to the imposed loads over a range of loads.

Since stress is proportional to load and strain is proportional to deformation, this implies that stress is proportional to strain. Hooke's Law is the statement of that proportionality.

  Stress   sigma
  =   =   E
   Strain   epsilon

The constant, E, is the modulus of elasticity, Young's modulus or the tensile modulus and is the material's stiffness. Young's modulus is in terms of 106 psi or 103 kg/mm2.  If a material obeys Hooke's Law it is elastic. The modulus is insensitive to a material's temper. Normal force is directly dependent upon the elastic modulus.


Proportional limit

The greatest stress at which a material is capable of sustaining the applied load without deviating from the proportionality of stress to strain. Expressed in psi (kg/mm2). 

Ultimate( Tensile Strength)

The maximum stress a material withstands when subjected to an applied load.  Dividing the load at failure by the original cross sectional area determines the value.

Elastic limit

The point on the stress-strain curve beyond which the material permanently deforms after removing the load .

Yield strength

Point at which material exceeds the elastic limit and will not return to its origin shape or length if the stress is removed.  This value is determined by evaluating a stress-strain diagram produced during a  tensile test.

Poisson's ratio

The ratio of the lateral to longitudinal strain is Poisson's ratio.

  lateral strain
nu =  
 longitudinal strain

Poisson's ratio is a dimensionless constant used for stress and deflection analysis of structures such as beams, plates, shells and rotating discs. 


Bending stress

When bending a piece of metal, one surface of the material stretches in tension while the opposite surface compresses.  It follows that there is a line or region of zero stress between the two surfaces, called the neutral axis. Make the following assumptions in simple bending theory:

  1. The beam is initially straight, unstressed and symmetric
  2. The material of the beam is linearly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic.
  3. The proportional limit is not exceeded.
  4. Young's modulus for the material is the same in tension and compression
  5. All deflections are small, so that planar cross-sections remain planar before and after bending.

Using classical beam formulas and section properties, the following relationship can be derived:

  3 PL
Bending stress,  sigma b =  
 2 w t 2
  P L3
Bending or flexural modulus,  E  b =  
 4 w t 3 y

Where: P = normal force
l = beam length
w = beam width
t = beam thickness
y = deflection at load point

The reported flexural modulus is usually the initial modulus from the stress-strain curve in tension. 

The maximum stress occurs at the surface of the beam farthest from the neutral surface (axis) and is:

  M c   M
Max surface stress,  sigmamax =   =
I Z
Where: M = bending moment
c = distance from neutral axis to outer surface where max stress occurs
I = moment of inertia
Z = I/c = section modulus

For a rectangular cantilever beam with a concentrated load at one end, the maximum surface stress is given by:

  3 d E t
sigma max  =  
 2 2
the methods to reduce maximum stress is to keep the strain energy in the beam constant while changing the beam profile. Additional beam profiles are trapezoidal, tapered and torsion.
Where: d = deflection of the beam at the load
E = Modulus of Elasticity
t = beam thickness
l = beam length
?

Yielding

Yielding occurs when the design stress exceeds the material yield strength. Design stress is typically maximum surface stress (simple loading) or Von Mises stress (complex loading conditions). The Von Mises yield criterion states that yielding occurs when the Von Mises stress, sigma nu  exceeds the yield strength in tension. Often, Finite Element Analysis stress results use Von Mises stresses. Von Mises stress is:

SquareRoot
( sigma1- sigma2 )2 +  ( sigma2- sigma3 )2 +  ( sigma1- sigma3 )2 
sigma nu =  
 2

where sigma1, sigma2, sigma3 are principal stresses.

Safety factor is a function of design stress and yield strength. The following equation denotes safety factor, fs. >

  Y S
fs =  
 D S

Where Y S  is the Yield Strength and D S  is the Design Stress

See our Material Terms and Links page for additional information.



Properties | Tensile Strength | Yield Strength | Typical Yield | Typical Tensile | Yield strength & Yield point | Stainless Steel Tensile Strength | Bend Testing | Compression Testing | Difference Between Yield and Tensile | AISI Steel Yield Tensile Strength Properties of Metals | Strength of Materials | Stress | Aluminum Mechanical Properties | Tensile Proof Stress Of Metric Bolts and Screws | Tensile Strength of Metric Nuts | Stainless Tensile Of Metric Bolts Screws

Physical Properties Stainless Steel Carbon Steel | Thermoplastics Physical Properties | British Standard Strength of Steel Shear and Tensile | Elastic Properties Young Modulus | Stength European Standard | Ductility | Young's Modulus | Non-Ferrous Modulus of Elasticity | Steel Bolts Strength | Iron Steel Modulus of Elasticity | Thermal Properties | Properties of Thermal | Thread Shear Calculator | Metals Properties | Stainless Steel Physical Properties | Definition Mechanical Properties


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